Stories of how good people are unfairly treated and their struggles to set things right captivate us. Invariably, the behaviour and actions of one or more people, individually or collectively, can set things back and cause great harm. The Great War, the ‘first’ World War, was supposed to change things, but it didn’t.
On the news today, forget the War in Ukraine (everyone has); we have Commonwealth leaders calling for reparations to be paid to the ancestors of the African slave trade on the one hand, and Israel, Gaza, Lebon and Iran going up in flames – the Middle East is more of a story today than it was 108 years ago where this story reaches its climax: Black soldiers of the British West Indies Regiment in combat against the Ottoman Turks and soldiers receiving medals, awarded ‘in the field’ by their commanding officer. That felt like progress for the Caribbean’s young men fighting for the British Army. There was hope for the future, all of this to be dashed by the repeatedly vile and disrespectful man who became their commanding officer the following year, the war over, the men waiting to be demobbed.
This story has seven parts:
- The British Empire. Early 20th Century History and Geography 1902/1908
- The Caribean. Colony or Donimion.
- The Outbreak of War, 28 July 1914
- Recruitment, Medical, Attestation into the British Army, Transport to GB
- Seaford Camp April/May 1915/ Cold, Cold, Cold Military Training
- Deployment and War Service 196-1918 Military Training and Military History, Combat/Labour/Construction
- Demob 1919/Calamy/Disgrace. Return to the Caribbean and Beyond/Agitation/Labour Movement/Politicisation and Independence
1 Early 20th Century History and Geography 1902/1908
At the dawn of the 20th century, a glance at a globe or map of the British Empire reveals a vast network spanning continents, marked by a complex tapestry of diverse populations and intricate relationships between the colonised and the coloniser—England. This period highlights the stark differences between living in a Dominion and a colony, which had profound implications for the governed.
Dominions such as Canada (established 1867), Australia (1901), Newfoundland (1907), New Zealand (1907), and the Union of South Africa (1910) enjoyed a degree of autonomy within the Empire. These largely self-governing nations had complete legislative authority, managed trade policies, and maintained autonomous armed forces, though Britain still retained the power to declare war. In contrast, colonies like the British Caribbean islands—British Honduras and British Guiana—remained directly under British rule, with their foreign affairs firmly controlled by London.
In the Dominions, relationships varied between the governing (often white, British-educated military or colonial service members) and the governed (including indigenous populations like the First Nations in Canada and the Maori in New Zealand). These regions administered their internal affairs, military training, and defence strategies, reflecting their distinct societal norms and racial dynamics.
Colonies
Meanwhile, the colonies presented a different scenario. The long-standing Indian Army in regions such as Punjab and Burma, established in 1858, exemplified a well-structured military presence. Yet colonial rule extended to diverse territories, including additional African Colonies, Malta, and Seychelles, emphasising a rigid adherence to British law and property rights—a respect mingled with clear formal differentiation and racial inequalities.
The Caribbean, a complicated corner of an enormous empire, was overwhelmingly influenced by British culture, albeit less so in places like Honduras, Guiana, and Trinidad, where Spanish and other cultural influences permeated. Education played a pivotal role in shaping societal structures. In places like Bermuda, the British military presence was strong, with distinct divisions such as the all-white Bermuda Volunteer Rifle Corps and an all-black Pioneer Division reflecting stringent governance to prevent mutiny.
Yet, not all was stable in this region. The early 20th century was marked by significant unrest, with labour riots erupting in Jamaica, Trinidad & Tobago in 1902 and 1908, British Guiana in 1905, and St. Lucia in 1908. These upheavals highlighted the underlying tensions and the urgent calls for change across the British West Indies—a collection of islands including British Honduras, Barbados, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Dominica, St. Kitts, Jamaica, Bahamas, Trinidad & Tobago, and British Guiana.
This backdrop sets the stage for understanding the era’s complex socio-political landscape, where the echoes of empire, governance, and the quest for egalitarianism played out against a tapestry of colonial rule and the struggle for autonomy and rights.
2 Outbreak of War, 28 July 1914
Troops of the A Company, 4th Battalion, Royal Fusiliers (7th Brigade, 3rd Division) resting in the Grand Place, Mons. IWM (Q 70071)
On 28 July 1914, the outbreak of World War I saw the British Army acting as the policing force of the Empire, though relatively small compared to the colossal armies of continental Europe. The British Expeditionary Force (BEF) comprised about 247,000 regular troops and 145,000 reservists, supplemented by the Territorial Force—a volunteer reserve component established in 1908 with approximately 315,000 men.
The British Army’s global presence included units across the British Isles and garrisons throughout the Empire, from India to Africa and smaller Caribbean, Mediterranean, and Pacific detachments. The Indian Army, notably large with around 155,000 regular troops and 43,000 non-combatants, played a crucial role at the start of the war.
Various colonial units, such as the British West India Regiment and the King’s African Rifles, supported the regular forces, alongside contributions from the Dominions—Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. These forces, not initially part of the British Army, would become instrumental as the war progressed, each operating under its command but closely coordinating with British military efforts.
The British Army
The British Army maintained a colour bar to promotion from the ranks, as noted in the Manual of Military Law: ‘A Negro, or person of colour, may enlist but could not be promoted to a commissioned rank. However, the War Office stated, ‘no objection to granting to slightly coloured gentlemen a temporary commission.’
In Britain, Lord Kitchener’s call for volunteers saw 10,000 men billeted in Lewes before being moved to Seaford Camp, where they endured harsh winter conditions.
In the Caribbean, the decline of the cotton trade to Egypt and India and sugar to European sugar beet, combined with the presence of the unchallenged German Destroyer Karlsruhe in the region, heightened fears of invasion. Despite restrictions on forming large local militias, which left the islands virtually undefended, Caribbean men found ways to enlist in Britain.
The Indian Army was quickly mobilised, arriving in Marseilles by late September and soon after joining the British Expeditionary Force on the Western Front. The army played a pivotal role in critical battles. Meanwhile, the Caribbean’s contribution wasn’t just manpower; it included vital exports like rice for the Indian Army and rum, which provided half a million daily rations in 1914.
Labour Corps were formed globally, including the South African Labour Corps, Indian Labour Corps, Maori Pioneer Battalion, and Canadian Construction Corps (Colored). These units, often composed of individuals explicitly recruited for their labouring skills, played essential roles in the war’s logistics, from construction to support in the trenches.
3 Recruitment, Medical, Attestation into the British Army, Transport to GB
In May 1915, following the neutralisation of the German Navy by April 1915, the Jamaican governor’s offer of troops was extended to encompass the entire West Indies. Captain Arthur Cipriani’s request influenced this expansion, and further encouragement was received from King George V, who expressed a desire to see a Caribbean combat force potentially serving in Mesopotamia.
Captain Arthur Cipriani, 27th October 1914
There are many men of good physique and education in the Colony and throughout the West Indies who are eager and who will be proud to enlist.
We are four thousand and some odd miles from the Old Country, and the lowest fare is £17.10 (£2,200 in today’s money). A few men have left, and a few more are leaving on their own, but the majority cannot afford it.
West Indians have realised that it is a fight to the finish, that not only is the existence of the Mother Country at stake but the very Empire of which we are all proud to be a part. We should feel not slighted but slighted if our services are declined when men still want to keep the flag flying.
We are bottled up here but eager to get out to assist the Mother Country. If you could use your power to get our little lot taken into service, this Colony and the Indies would be deeply grateful.
Low Expectations for Volunteers
A recruiting meeting in Kingston, Jamaica 1915
Initially, expectations were low, with predictions that only a few hundred would volunteer; however, the response was overwhelming, with thousands coming forward, spurred by reports from the Western Front and the exploits of the Indian Army from October 1914 to the Battle of Neuve Chapelle in March 1915.
Recruitment was robust, promoted through rallies at churches, work, and via posters. Potential recruits were appealed to with the promise of guaranteed pay, a pension for families if they were killed, potential land grants, and associated social mobility—though the reality of democratic rights varied widely.
The motivations for enlistment were complex – fighting for the British Empire against German colonialism and the Kaiser, asserting the rights to equality and social mobility, and challenging racial inequalities within the Empire.
Enlistment standards for joining the British Army were stringent. Recruits were required to meet criteria for age (as declared to the recruiting officer), height (initially between 5ft 3in and 5ft 6in, later adjusted to 5ft 2in), sight, hearing, weight, chest expansion, dental health, and literacy in English. These criteria ensured the recruits could serve effectively under King George’s order.
Transport to Britain initially involved civilian ships, including schooners, merchant vessels, and passenger ships. However, the tragic sinking of the RMS Lusitania in March 1916 had severe repercussions. Reports of harsh conditions and people losing fingers, toes, and limbs from frostbite have caused a significant dip in recruitment efforts in Jamaica.
4 Seaford Camp April/May 1915/ Cold, Cold, Cold Military Training
The first contingent of the British West Indies Regiment (BWIR) arrived at Seaford Camp on October 6, 1915. Their journey to Seaford involved multiple stops, from Caribbean ports to Liverpool.
Training at Seaford consisted of various drills, including Swedish Drills and route marches. There was also a regular Church Parade. During their time at Seaford, 53 members of the BWIR were confirmed by the Bishop of Lewes, Herbert Jones, though the exact location of the ceremony—whether in the Church Hut, a local church, or somewhere in Lewes—is not recorded.
However, the conditions were far from ideal; the weather was often cold and wet, with early frosts and hail, though stoves and three blankets each were provided to combat the cold, men went down with mumps, pneumonia, and bronchitis. They were sent to hospitals in Newhaven and beyond. Nineteen died and are buried in Seaford Cemetery.
Seaford Cemetery, CWG headstones to those from Seaford Camp who died December 1915 to January 1916 by Jonathan Vernon (CC BY-SA 4.0)
A poignant reflection from a nurse’s autograph book captures the sentiment of the time:
For I am cold, cold, cold, boys;
Cold in my hands and hair,
In my mouth and my nose,
From my eyes to my toes,
And even in the clothes I wear.
The BWIR represented about 10% of the camp’s population, with the remainder mainly composed of soldiers from the Canadian division who also suffered from harsh conditions, particularly bronchitis and pneumonia.
Ultimately, the troops departed Seaford on January 21, 1916, destined for further military training in Egypt.
Subsequently, the 3rd and 4th Battalions arrived in Seaford and underwent military training: physical fitness, route marches, and square-bashing, as well as musketry (rifle work, cleaning, drills and shooting).
Men of the 3 or 4th BWIR in front of their hut, Seaford Camp, late 1916 or early 1917.
5 Deployment and War Service 1916-1918 Military Training and Military History, Combat/Labour/Construction
Sergeants of the BWIR in Palestine
The BWIR’s 1st and 2nd Infantry Battalions were sent to Egypt to complete their basic military training. They underwent similar preparation from 6:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m., including physical drills, route marches, musketry, tactical lectures, and specialist training in signalling, machine gun operation, and grenade throwing. Night drills focused on outpost defence and trench fighting.
In 1916, these battalions, new to combat, were positioned behind the lines in a relatively quiet area to get used to the wartime environment. This was normal and had been the case for new army battalions on the Western Front.
Combat Engagements and Recognition
Throughout their deployment, the BWIR saw action. In June 1916, during a training outpost session, they repelled an attack, which killed two enemy combatants and injured three. They also experienced aerial attacks. Their involvement extended to patrolling, defence, and construction along the canal, and they were integrated with the 2nd West Kent Regiment for these operations.
Organised sports were also a part of their regimen to maintain morale, with the soldiers participating in football, cricket, and athletics. They achieved notable successes in cricket in 1917. Skitradespeopleesmen within the BWIR, such as blacksmiths and carpenters, were crucial in supporting the Inland Water Transport, pipeline, and railway construction.
Distinguished Conduct
Lance Corporal Leekam receiving the Military Medal ‘in the field’. Photo courtesy of Library of Congress.
The BWIR’s courage was notably recognised in specific battles. For instance, on September 20, 1918, Lance Corporal R. Turpin demonstrated extraordinary bravery by running a communication wire under heavy fire, earning significant commendations. Another notable instance was on September 22, 1918, when the 1st BWIR played a critical role in an assault over the River Jordan. Working alongside a New Zealand company and with support from Artially from an Indian group, Sergeant W.E. Julian led his platoon effectively to capture enemy positions and secure vital equipment and prisoners.
Labour and Logistics
West Indian troops stacking 8-inch shells at a dump on the Gordon Road, Ypres, October 1917. IWM (E(AUS) 2078)
Beyond combat, the BWIR’s 3rd to 12th battalions were extensively involved in logistical and labour duties, particularly highlighted during the Somme Offensive and other critical battles where they served as stevedores and in labour corps in France and Italy. Their contribution was crucial to the Allied victory, underlining the strategic importance of logistic support in wartime efforts.
Challenges and Recognition
BWIR Camp in Flanders 1917
Despite their significant contributions, the BWIR faced challenges, including instances of court martial and the controversial use of their units in non-combatant roles, which sparked debates about racial policies within the military. The execution of Herbert Morris for desertion underscores the severe discipline imposed within the army, contrasting sharply with the medals and commendations that highlighted exceptional bravery.
6 Demob 1919/Calamy/Disgrace. Return to the Caribbean and Beyond/Agitation/Labour Movement/Politicisation and Independence
In 1919, the demobilisation process for the British West Indies Regiment (BWIR) in Taranto, Italy, marked a pivotal moment that underscored deep-seated issues of race and inequality within the military. For the first time, combat-experienced battalions of the BWIR, specifically the 1st and 2nd, were grouped with labour battalions, including the reassigned 3rd and 4th and others sent from France and Flanders to overwinter. This grouping did not sit well with the skilled, medal-wearing soldiers of the 1st and 2nd Battalions who had fought on the front lines alongside British, Indian, and New Zealand troops in Palestine, showcasing a stark contrast in treatment and recognition compared to their labouring counterparts.
The 1st and 2nd Battalions’ experiences under a New Zealand commander had given a glimpse into what equality and diversity might look like in the post-war world. However, the reality in Italy was a sharp deviation from these ideals. The situation was exacerbated by a particularly disliked commanding officer—a British veteran of the Boer War who had been previously transferred due to his poor leadership skills and had returned to oversee the BWIR’s demobilisation.
Tensions reached a breaking point in December 1918 when 180 sergeants signed a petition, echoing an earlier one from 12 worthies of the BWIR supported by the Governor of Barbados, voicing grievances over pay and promotion. Both petitions were blatantly ignored, and the soldiers were humiliatingly ordered to clean the latrines of Italian labourers, leading to outright refusal and what eventually escalated into a riot, later termed a mutiny.
Mutiny
The BWIR soldiers were surrounded by the Worcestershire Regiment, armed with machine guns, and their rifles were confiscated, never to be returned. Of the BWIR, 60 men were tried, and 47 were found guilty and sentenced to imprisonment with hard labour.
This conflict resonated back in Britain, where societal tensions were also high.
The BWIR soldiers stationed near American Expeditionary Forces encountered the rampant racism of Jim Crow laws, with African Americans restricted to labouring duties unless enlisted under the French Army. This period also saw the Liverpool Riots, where demobilised soldiers targeted people of colour, blaming them for taking jobs and supposedly having an easier time during the war.
Despite these soldiers’ participation in the war, the BWIR was notably excluded from the Victory Parades in London and Paris in 1919, a punitive measure for the mutiny in Italy.
Field Marshall Sir Douglas Haig at the Victory March, London, 1919 (NAM Image 110584)
There was no welcome home back in the Caribbean either (though they did put on a celebration in Trinidad).
As the British West Indies Regiment (BWIR) soldiers returned to the Caribbean, the winds of change began to stir with renewed vigour. They brought the scars of battle and a fierce determination to transform their society. Their demands were precise: representative government, enlargement of the franchise, and improved labour relations. The Caribbean League, vocal and unwavering, called for equal rights, self-determination, and a closer union in the West Indies.
The watch-words were ‘Agitate, Confederate, Liberate’
On December 20th, a sergeant from the 3rd BWIR boldly declared that “the black man should have freedom and govern himself in the West Indies and that if necessary, force and bloodshed should be used to attain that object.” This powerful statement resonated deeply, highlighting a profound shift in consciousness—a recognition of their worth and rights, underscored by a British government memo revealing the undeniable truth: “Nothing we can do will alter the fact that the black man has begun to think and feel himself as good as the white.”
Yet, the path forward was fraught with challenges. Many veterans, still grappling with unemployment and disillusioned by the slow pace of change, left for Cuba or the southern states of the US to toil on plantations—a stark contrast to their heroic aspirations. Others migrated to New York and Harlem, immersing themselves in the burgeoning Pan-African Movement, seeking solace and purpose in activism.
Back in the Caribbean, the seeds of revolution these men planted began to sprout. Former soldiers focused on building the foundations of civil society; they formed labour unions, ignited political parties, and raised their voices as journalists. Their efforts bore fruit as several rose through the political ranks, steering their nations toward sovereignty and playing pivotal roles in the fight for independence.
Henry B. Montheith, Acting Warrant Officer Class 2, BWIR, Jamaica Times, 28 June 1919
Lads of the West, with duty done, soon shall we parted be
To different land, perhaps be no more each other’s face to see,
But still, as comrades of the war our efforts, we’ll unite
To sweep injustice from our land, its social wrongs to right.
Then go on conquering – lift your lives above each trivial thing
To which the meaner breeds of earth so desperately cling;
And Heaven grant you strength to fight the battle for your race,
To fight and conquer, making earth for man a happier place.
Henry B. Montheith, Acting Warrant Officer Class 2, BWIR, Jamaica Times, 28 June 1919
Memorials to the men of the British West Indies Regiment
Several memorials are dedicated to the British West Indies Regiment (BWIR), which honour the contributions and sacrifices of these soldiers during World War One. Here are some notable examples:
1. The British West Indies Regiment Memorial, Seaford
Located in Seaford, where the regiment trained before being deployed. The memorial was unveiled in 1994 and commemorates the soldiers who served and those who lost their lives.
2. The Caribbean War Memorial, National Memorial Arboretum, Staffordshire:
This memorial honours the Caribbean soldiers who served in both World Wars, including the BWIR. The National Memorial Arboretum features a plaque dedicated to the regiment.
3. The Tower Hill Memorial, London:
The Tower Hill Memorial commemorates those who served in the Merchant Navy and Fishing Fleets during the World Wars and who have no known grave. Among those honoured are members of the BWIR who served in various capacities.
4. The Memorial Gates, Constitution Hill, London:
These gates commemorate the service of soldiers from the Indian subcontinent, Africa, and the Caribbean in the World Wars. The BWIR’s names are among those honoured.
5. The Cenotaph, Whitehall, London:
– While not specific to the BWIR, the Cenotaph is a central point of remembrance for all Commonwealth soldiers who served and died in the World Wars. Commemorative services often include tributes to the BWIR.
6. The West India Committee, London:
– The West India Committee has a plaque dedicated to the BWIR at its headquarters, acknowledging the regiment’s contributions during World War One.
The West India Committee supports West Indian Heritage Projects.
The West Indian Soldiers in the First World War > https://westindiacommittee.org/historyheritageculture/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/WIS-WWI.pdf
Resources
The West Indian Library Catalogue
D526.2 EDG Edghill, Ashley G. Extracts from the pocket diary, 1916-1918. Bridgetown : Cole, 1918.
DA18.5 LUC Lucas, Charles Prestwood, Sir, 1853-1931. The Empire at war / edited for the Royal Colonial Institute by Sir Charles Lucas. London ; New York [etc.] : H. Milford, Oxford University Press, 1921-26.
(UMC) Smith, Richard Jamaican Volunteers in the First World War: Race, masculinity and the development of national consciousness Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2004
WIC F1601 PAM (13) Wood-Hill, C. A few notes on the history of the British West Indies regiment. [n.p. : n.pub., n.d.]
(UMC) Gordon, Kevin War Graves of Seaford Cemetery Seaford: Seaford Museum, 2016 > https://www.seamig.org.uk/docs/KGleaflet.pdf
The Caribbean’s Great War Virtual Gallery > https://bit.ly/3SonbVT
References
Dendooven, Dominiek. The British West Indies Regiment: Race and Colour on the Western Front (p. 142). Pen and Sword. Kindle Edition.
The Caribbean History Archives: Trinidadians who served in World War I. http://caribbeanhistoryarchives.blogspot.com/2014/04/trinidadians-who-served-in-world-war-i.html
Smith, R. W. P. (2011). The Impact of the First World War on the Garvey Movement. https://core.ac.uk/download/110838.pdf
Markham, B. (2016). Policy-makers and the New World of British Imperialism in the Aftermath of the First World War. https://core.ac.uk/download/79607614.pdf
The Life of Captain Cipriani: An Account of British Government in the West Indies, with the pamphlet The Case for West-Indian Self Government 9780822376866 – EBIN.PUB. https://ebin.pub/the-life-of-captain-cipriani-an-account-of-british-government-in-the-west-indies-with-the-pamphlet-the-case-for-west-indian-self-government-9780822376866.html
Grenada’s Ambassador remembers Joseph Daniel | Lijssenthoek. https://lijssenthoek.be/en/news/51/grenadas-ambassador-remembers-joseph-daniel.html
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